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In this section:
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What is Behavioural science?
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Behavioural Science (or Behavioural Economics) has developed to explain differences between observed and predicted behaviour. It is not a single unified theory but a set of in excess of 200 behavioural effects (sometimes called cognitive biases) which describe how people process information and behave in response.
It draws from a range of disciplines including experimental economics, psychology, sociology, anthropology and neuroscience. It is important because applying the lessons from Behavioural Science can increase the effectiveness of communications programmes and behaviour change interventions, improve the reliability of forecasts, and enhance the value of market research. |
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Predictably Human
Behavioural Science tells us that people do not behave as "econs" making rational, utility maximising choices, but as humans with all their emotions and complex lives. To illustrate some of the ways in which people do not behave as is often expected (and generally assumed by planners, modellers, forecasters and even some marketers) the Predictably Human questionnaire has been developed, an extract of which is available opposite for you to participate in. To see the results look at the Blogs |
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How to choose your model, theory or framework
There are a confusing array of models, frameworks and theories aimed at helping practitioners apply Behavioural Science to projects and programmes, so how do you choose the right one? The risk is that choosing an inappropriate model can lead to sub-optimal solutions and can lead to a false sense of security – it may seem good to have used a model, but this is only the case if it’s the right one. The Beyond Logic approach is to start by understanding the context and being clear about what you’re trying to achieve and what the barriers to these outcomes seem to be.
To provide a consistent and replicable way of selecting a model, framework or theory six relatively simple questions have been devised which differentiate the ten approved models and frameworks using their relevant strengths and weaknesses. This recognises that they all have their uses, but are more applicable to some situations than others. The output of the process is a ranking of the subset of models and frameworks which are appropriate for the application at hand. If there’s a tie, the personal preference of the practitioner using the model or framework comes into play, likely reflecting their personal experience.
To provide a consistent and replicable way of selecting a model, framework or theory six relatively simple questions have been devised which differentiate the ten approved models and frameworks using their relevant strengths and weaknesses. This recognises that they all have their uses, but are more applicable to some situations than others. The output of the process is a ranking of the subset of models and frameworks which are appropriate for the application at hand. If there’s a tie, the personal preference of the practitioner using the model or framework comes into play, likely reflecting their personal experience.
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Six Questions
Answer these as best you can, using a simple three-point scale: yes, no, not sure. Q1 do you know what triggers the behaviour you’re looking to change? Q2 do you know what the barriers to change are? Q3 do you know what the main motivations influencing relevant behaviours are? Q4 is the intervention mainly communications based? Q5 is behaviour affected by a medical addiction? Q6 is the desired behaviour generally recognised as being “good”? |
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Ten models, frameworks and theories
The approved models, frameworks and theories are summarised below. These are all consistent with the principles of Behavioural Science even if their creators did not explicitly refer to them.
The approved models, frameworks and theories are summarised below. These are all consistent with the principles of Behavioural Science even if their creators did not explicitly refer to them.
Name |
What you get from it |
What you don’t get from it |
The Beyond Logic perspective |
Antecedents - Behaviour - Consequences (ABC) Model |
A model that allows you explore what is triggering the target behaviour and how is that behaviour being reinforced and maintained. Once we understand the contingencies at play, we can design interventions to shape these triggers and consequences on purpose. |
The ABC model doesn’t provide a specific set of implementation or intervention guidelines unlike other models. |
Usefully highlights the importance of identifying the triggers for particular behaviour and thereby the events or situations which need to be modified in order to change that behaviour. |
The Behavioural Drivers Model |
A diagnostic tool to identify the main drivers and barriers to behaviour and map them to potential interventions |
The BDM is a useful tool to ensure that all drivers to behaviour are considered when designing an intervention, but it still needs to be combined with knowledge and insights. |
Provides a useful, evidence-based framework for exploring the barriers to change, including both internal and external (contextual) factors. |
The COM-B Model |
A diagnostic tool to identify barriers and facilitators and develop a behaviour change strategy. COM-B (Capability, Opportunity, Motivation, Behaviour) can be used in combination with the Behaviour Change Wheel to identify effective intervention functions and relevant policy categories. It can also be used in combination with the Behaviour Change Techniques taxonomy to select ‘active ingredients’ that are likely to influence behaviour. |
The COM-B model and the Behaviour Change Wheel are comprehensive guidelines, but they are not exhaustive. There will still need to be judgement involved when using the model |
COM-B is becoming a well-respected framework for identifying and categorising potential behaviour change interventions, though it requires some additional interpretation when applying it outside of the personal health domain. It provides a useful tool when used in the initial Understand stage in the Beyond Logic Influencing Behaviour Process. |
The EAST Framework |
A simple way to incorporate evidence-based techniques to make a behaviour easy, attractive, social and timely. A simple methodology to apply these techniques in practice. |
EAST is designed to be easy to remember and use so is limited in its scope and doesn’t provide solutions. |
EAST is useful primarily for designing effective communications-based campaigns, though the principles behind it can be applied more generally. |
The Fogg Model |
A tool to design executional solutions to trigger behaviour change in a specific context. A guide to designing persuasive prompts based on the levels of ability and motivation. |
The B = MAP model is dependent on the levels of motivation and ability at a specific point in time to design effective prompts, so it is less suitable for broader behaviour change challenges. |
The Fogg model is a useful way of thinking about behaviours and what drives them, including the “prompts” or contextual cues that trigger particular behaviours. |
The Integrated Behaviour Model |
A model with a broad scope that allows you to measure the association between key psychological constructs and someone’s intention to perform a behaviour. |
Although the IBM highlights key areas to influence, it doesn’t come with tools or guidelines for simple implementation. It requires expert knowledge and may be less actionable than other models. |
This can be a helpful framework for exploring the influences on behaviour, though doesn’t help identify suitable interventions for changing behaviour. |
ISM (Individual, Social, Material) |
ISM recognises that there is a myriad of behavioural models available and that it is difficult to know which one would best apply to a particular situation. It aims to get around this problem by combining into one model the most pertinent factors. |
The tool is limited to 18 factors which can influence behaviour, with examples of their application and links for further reading, but limited guidance on which to apply when. |
ISM provides a useful summary of 18 influences on behaviour taken from social psychology, sociology and behavioural economics. |
Self Determination Theory |
A framework for understanding how to foster motivation that leads to behaviour change and maintenance. |
Although SDT-based interventions have been conducted in different settings, SDT doesn’t come with simple tools or guidelines for its implementation. |
SDT is focussed on motivation rather than behaviour so is only useful where the main barrier to change is a lack of motivation. |
The Transtheoretical Model (Stages of Change |
A model that gives you some guidance on how to identify how ready to change someone is, and suggests tailored intervention approaches based on the different stages of change. It is actionable and clear enough to be used by practitioners. |
Although the TTM is quite actionable, it focuses on deliberate individual health behaviour change and fails to recognise the numerous external (and unconscious) factors that influence health behaviour, so it may need complementary strategies from practitioners. Additionally, the evidence on the value of stage-targeted interventions is relatively weak. |
This model can be useful for deigning messaging which resonates with the stage of change the individual is currently at (precontemplation, Contemplation, Preparation, Action, Maintenance). It should be recognised though that outside of addictive behaviour, it is not helpful to try to move people along the stages but instead focus on the desired behaviour. |
Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) |
Effectively an extension of the COM-B model, adding elements such as knowledge, beliefs about capabilities and consequences, optimism, reinforcement, environmental context and resources. |
It helps to identify influences on behaviour but doesn’t add to the identification of solutions provided by COM-B. |
The 14 domains identified are potentially useful, but also add a layer of complexity which is not always helpful. Nevertheless, the environmental context is worth considering, including personal circumstances which act as a barrier to change. |
Models, frameworks and theories
A model is a simplified description of a complex process or system. They are typically used to help predict outcomes, sometimes for different scenarios. A framework provides an overview of a system and its components and are typically used to provide a consistent and structured way of approaching a complex task. A theory is similar to a model in that it describes in a simplified way a complex process, but in addition it aims to explain why the outcome of the process is as it is. With any model or theory, something to be mindful of is what it leaves out in order to provide a practicable solution. For example, many economic models make the assumption that individuals and companies are utility maximising and have perfect knowledge of the options open to them, In practice, neither of these are true so it is important to understand the consequences of this and how they might affect the predicted outcomes.
A model is a simplified description of a complex process or system. They are typically used to help predict outcomes, sometimes for different scenarios. A framework provides an overview of a system and its components and are typically used to provide a consistent and structured way of approaching a complex task. A theory is similar to a model in that it describes in a simplified way a complex process, but in addition it aims to explain why the outcome of the process is as it is. With any model or theory, something to be mindful of is what it leaves out in order to provide a practicable solution. For example, many economic models make the assumption that individuals and companies are utility maximising and have perfect knowledge of the options open to them, In practice, neither of these are true so it is important to understand the consequences of this and how they might affect the predicted outcomes.
A timeline of behavioural science
The diagram below maps the history of Behavioural Science using key publications as milestones.
It starts with Adam Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments which discusses how people are driven by emotions and how the emotions of one person affect those of others. There's then a gap through the Victorian and world war eras until Bounded Rationality, Herbert Simon (1957). Simon points out that people are not perfectly rational but have limits on access to information and computational capacities. The first recognised Behavioural Economics theory was Prospect Theory Tversky & Kahneman (1979). This showed that people treat losses and gains differently, which is at odds with generally accepted economic theory. The next publication highlighted is Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain (1994) by neuroscientist António Damásio. The error in question is René Descartes' separation of the mind from the body (the mind/body dualism) which is as an error because reasoning requires the guidance of emotions and feelings conveyed from the body. The Hidden Power of Advertising, Robert Heath (2000) is highlighted because it introduced the theory of Low Involvement Processing. This is important for communication and advertising because the evidence which led to the theory showed that people don't need to be consciously aware of an advert for it to have an impact since most processing of information happens without the involvement of conscious thought.
A major "tipping point" for behavioural science was the 2007/8 financial crises which powerfully demonstrated that people do not behave in a purely rational manner and that models based on standard neo-classical theory are fundamentally flawed. It led directly to the setting up of Behavioural Insights Teams in the UK and US and coincided with a flurry of publications including Predictably irrational by Dan Ariely (2008), and Nudge by Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein (2008). Thinking Fast and Slow (Daniel Kahneman, 2011) was another important publication which helped to establish Behavioural Economics as a serious and relevant discipline. The Behavioural Insight Team's EAST framework (2015) is used as an illustration of how Behavioural Science was becoming mainstream. Misbehaving by Richard Thaler is a retrospective look at the development of Behavioural Science from an insider's perspective and its publication shows how by this time (2015) it had become an accepted discipline. Since then, it has continued to blossom with many governments and organisations employing behavioural science teams or individual behavioural scientists. In fact a 2021 study "Behavioral Teams Around the World" estimated there to be 595 behavioural science teams, many in the US and UK but every continent represented.
It starts with Adam Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments which discusses how people are driven by emotions and how the emotions of one person affect those of others. There's then a gap through the Victorian and world war eras until Bounded Rationality, Herbert Simon (1957). Simon points out that people are not perfectly rational but have limits on access to information and computational capacities. The first recognised Behavioural Economics theory was Prospect Theory Tversky & Kahneman (1979). This showed that people treat losses and gains differently, which is at odds with generally accepted economic theory. The next publication highlighted is Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain (1994) by neuroscientist António Damásio. The error in question is René Descartes' separation of the mind from the body (the mind/body dualism) which is as an error because reasoning requires the guidance of emotions and feelings conveyed from the body. The Hidden Power of Advertising, Robert Heath (2000) is highlighted because it introduced the theory of Low Involvement Processing. This is important for communication and advertising because the evidence which led to the theory showed that people don't need to be consciously aware of an advert for it to have an impact since most processing of information happens without the involvement of conscious thought.
A major "tipping point" for behavioural science was the 2007/8 financial crises which powerfully demonstrated that people do not behave in a purely rational manner and that models based on standard neo-classical theory are fundamentally flawed. It led directly to the setting up of Behavioural Insights Teams in the UK and US and coincided with a flurry of publications including Predictably irrational by Dan Ariely (2008), and Nudge by Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein (2008). Thinking Fast and Slow (Daniel Kahneman, 2011) was another important publication which helped to establish Behavioural Economics as a serious and relevant discipline. The Behavioural Insight Team's EAST framework (2015) is used as an illustration of how Behavioural Science was becoming mainstream. Misbehaving by Richard Thaler is a retrospective look at the development of Behavioural Science from an insider's perspective and its publication shows how by this time (2015) it had become an accepted discipline. Since then, it has continued to blossom with many governments and organisations employing behavioural science teams or individual behavioural scientists. In fact a 2021 study "Behavioral Teams Around the World" estimated there to be 595 behavioural science teams, many in the US and UK but every continent represented.
System 1 v System 2 thinking (Daniel Kahneman)
Daniel Kahneman in his seminal book “Thinking Fast and Slow” described the concept of System 1 (fast) v System 2 (slow) thinking.
System 1 thinking is undertaken at a subconscious level and, as brain scanning has shown, even before we are aware of it.
System 2 thinking is where the rational part of our brains are engaged, but this only happens when the need to utilise our analytical processes has been triggered. Often this process is actually more about understanding a decision that has already been made than making a genuine choice ("post – rationalisation").
This concept has been developed into the "Dual system decision model", illustrated below:
System 1 thinking is undertaken at a subconscious level and, as brain scanning has shown, even before we are aware of it.
System 2 thinking is where the rational part of our brains are engaged, but this only happens when the need to utilise our analytical processes has been triggered. Often this process is actually more about understanding a decision that has already been made than making a genuine choice ("post – rationalisation").
This concept has been developed into the "Dual system decision model", illustrated below:
How to apply Behavioural SCIENCE
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To help identify which Behavioural effects and which of the various models and frameworks are most relevant (a review of the most commonly used models and frameworks is available in the Library), Beyond Logic Consulting follows the process illustrated opposite, starting with A. understanding the current situation, B. using this to design the policy, campaign or intervention, C. before testing it and then implementing it (D). Monitoring its impacts in order to learn and improve (E) is also a crucial part of the process which relies on evidence.
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BEHAVIOURAL EFFECTS (OR BIASES)
Some common Behavioural Effects are summarised below. These identify different ways in which humans don't behave in a purely logical or rational manner but are influenced by emotions and some innate needs.
Behavioural Effect |
Short description |
Action bias |
In some circumstances it's important to be seen to be doing something rather than simply sitting back and letting things happen, even if inaction is actually the best approach. |
Ambiguity aversion |
People don't like ambiguity and seek clarity and simplicity. |
Availability heuristic (All You See Is All There Is) |
Things that are more readily available have a greater impact than those which are more remote. |
Being seen to be good |
People like to be seen to do the right thing for society. |
Belonging |
Belonging - the desire to belong engendered through common goals. |
Blame avoidance |
Where the imperative is to avoid blame. |
Commitment |
People like to be internally consistent, and this concept is sometimes utilised in behaviour change programmes by encouraging participants to make a commitment which they then feel compelled to be consistent with. |
Confirmation bias |
People tend to seek out or evaluate information in a way that fits with their existing thinking and preconceptions. |
Conflict avoidance |
Most people avoid conflict and seek to collaborate with others. |
Default |
People will tend to choose the default option in order to make their lives less complicated, even if this is not the best option. |
Draw of free (or zero-price effect) |
Free goods have extra pulling power, as a reduction in price from £1 to zero is more powerful than a reduction from £2 to £1. |
Easy |
People are generally looking to make their lives easier and reduce the hassle factor. Simplicity and convenience are therefore key, and to facilitate a behaviour any friction should be reduced. |
Ego |
We act in ways that make us feel better about ourselves. |
Empowerment |
People need to feel they can make a difference in order to be motivated to try. |
Endowment effect |
When we own something we put greater value on it and don’t like to give it up. |
Fairness (or inequity aversion) |
People don't like inequity and unfairness. |
Framing (also Anchoring, Choice Architecture) |
Choices are heavily influenced by the way they are presented and, for example, which (and how many) options are shown. |
Habit |
Most behaviour is habitual with minimal conscious thought. This creates inertia and puts a brake on change. It means that it is easier to change behaviour at a point when habits are interrupted. |
Herd behaviour |
The tendency for people to unconsciously follow what others are doing rather than act independently. |
Heuristic |
Most choices are made unconsciously using simplified rules of thumb, or ‘heuristics’. This can be as simple as “I’ll do what I did last time in this situation” or "I'll do what my friends are doing". |
Honesty |
People like to be seen to be honest, although in practice most people are mildly dishonest. |
Incentives |
An incentive is something that motivates an individual to perform an action by making it more attractive. Monetry incentives can backfire by reducing the benefit of prosocial behaviours. |
Information asymmetry |
Where one party has more information than another it can lead to a lack of trust. |
Labour illusion |
Things are perceived as more valuable if they think a lot of effort has been put in to create it. This includes taking a longer time to produce something. |
Licensing effect |
The licensing effect is evident when people allow themselves to do something bad after doing something good. |
Loss aversion |
People are more affected by losses than gains. |
Messenger |
The impact of a message can be as much about the messenger as the message itself. |
Myopic procrastination |
The tendency for people to put off making a decision. |
Need for recognition |
People need to have external recognition and because of this reputational incentives can be more powerful than financial ones. |
Need for self esteem |
People need to have self-belief and a positive self-image, with one of the consequences of this being a need to be consistent. It means there is an incentive for conspicuous consumption. |
Peak end rule |
Memories of past events predominantly reflect the most extreme event and the end point. |
Power of context |
Our decisions are heavily influenced by the external environment, even though we are often unaware of it and prefer to believe we are in control. |
Present bias (also hyperbolic discounting or short termism) |
Things occurring imminently are given far more importance than those occurring in the future. |
Primacy of emotion |
Brain scanning has shown that our emotions are triggered in advance of rational thought and there is good evidence that emotions drive decision-making. As David Ogilvy put it: "Customers need a rational excuse to justify their emotional decisions. So always include one". |
Priming |
Priming refers to a sub-conscious process whereby an association is triggered and then goes on to influence behaviour. |
Reactance |
Priming refers to a sub-conscious process whereby an association is triggered and then goes on to influence behaviour. |
Rebound effect |
The rebound effect occurs when a mitigating action is undertaken but the gains it creates are offset or even reversed by subsequent actions. For example, someone who buy a fuel-efficient vehicle may then drive further than when they owned a less-efficient vehicle. |
Recipriocity |
Reciprocity is a social norm that involves in-kind exchanges between people—responding to another’s action with another equivalent action. |
Regret avoidance |
Most people fear making the wrong choice and will do what they can to avoid doing so. |
Relativity |
People think in relative rather than absolute terms. |
Salience |
We are drawn to what is novel and seems relevant to us. |
Satisficing |
People tend to make decisions by satisficing (a combination of sufficing and satisfying) rather than optimising. |
Scarcity heuristic |
When something is less readily available it tends to perceived as more valuable. |
Simplification |
Since people are often overloaded with information and demands on their mental resources, they have an innate desire to simplify things. This can lead to a variety of biases, and is reflected in the use of heuristics. It is one reason why simple messages work best - if a message is complex it's hard to know exactly how the reader is going to simplify it. |
Simulation heuristics |
Where someone has a narrow miss, they can more easily imagine an alternative where they succeed. |
Social norm |
Unwritten societal (or group) rules which influence an individual’s behaviour. |
Status Quo bias |
People generally prefer things to stay the same, or simply find this the easiest option. This often leads to habitual behaviour and sticking with the default option. |
Sunk cost fallacy |
When an action is continued on the basis of obtaining value from previously invested resources in order to "get your money’s worth" . |
